Cards can be divided into groups according to different criteria, the main ones being: coverage of territory, scale, content. Minor signs: purpose, object, method of image capture.

Differences in maps based on territory coverage:

1. world and hemisphere maps (maps that depict the entire earth's surface: a world map or a map of the Western and Eastern hemispheres);
2. maps of continents and oceans (maps depicting, as a rule, larger parts of the earth's surface);
3. states and their parts .

Differences in map scale:

When creating a map, a strict selection is made of what will be depicted and written on it. This selection is called cartographic generalization. As a rule, the smaller the scale of the map, the fewer objects are shown on it, i.e., the stricter its generalization. An important role in cartographic generalization is played by the purpose of the map and its subject matter.

Differences between cards in content.

Depending on the content, all cards are divided into general geographical And thematic.

General geographical maps display with approximately the same detail the main elements of the area: relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation, settlements, roads, borders, etc. General geographic maps include, for example, topographic maps on which territories are shown in great detail.

On thematic maps, on the contrary, depict one or two components of nature, economy, population, for example, relief and water, climate, soil. On a general geographic map, these components are either absent or not fully reflected. The content of thematic maps is determined by the topic to which they are devoted. For example, a soil map shows the placement of soil types. on the climate map - the distribution of temperatures, precipitation, wind directions. The remaining elements of these maps (large cities, rivers, etc.) serve only as background and are necessary as landmarks.

Sometimes thematic maps show not one or two, but several different but interrelated components or phenomena. Then they are called complex maps .

Differences between cards based on other characteristics (non-basic)

By purpose: reference, educational, tourist, agricultural, etc. By object: continental, marine, astronomical, planetary. By image fixation method: ground, aerospace, underwater.

Site plan

Site plan– a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger).

The construction of plans is carried out during visual, instrumental or combined surveys directly on the ground or on the basis of deciphering aerial photographs. The plans reflect a small area (several kilometers), and therefore, when constructing them, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account. The elements of the plan include symbols, definition of directions, and scale.

The difference between a plan and a map:

1. Plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;

the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the objects depicted, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, in contrast to the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;

2. When constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account, since a small area of ​​terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain cartographic projections;

3. There is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;

4. on the plan, the direction to the north is considered to be up, the direction to the south is down, to the west is to the left, to the east is to the right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.

Mapping methods used to display phenomena on thematic maps:

- high quality background. Area symbols on thematic maps are often used to identify territories based on certain characteristics. Qualitatively different territories are painted with different colors, different shading;

- habitats(area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon). The corresponding areas are delimited on the map by closed lines, highlighted by shading or shading, marked with inscriptions or individual letters, covered with contour icons or indicated by drawings;

- spot. Features of the placement of objects that have a widespread or limited distribution with different densities can be displayed on the map by placing points. Where the displayed objects are highly concentrated, the points are condensed, and in other cases they are sparse. The value of the indicator that corresponds to one point on the map is called weight. When there are sharp differences in the concentrations of objects, points of two or more sizes are often used, each of which is determined by the corresponding weight;

- isolines. Isolines connect points on the map with the same values ​​of any indicators. Isolines connecting points with the same absolute height - horizontal. The height distance between two adjacent horizontal lines taken on the same slope is called the section height, and the distance between the horizontal lines according to the plan is called the laying. The steeper the slope, the smaller the amount of foundation, and vice versa. To determine the steepness of the slope, the shortest distance between adjacent horizontal lines is measured and the corresponding position is selected on a scale, against which the steepness of the slope is read in degrees. To determine the direction of the slope along the horizontal lines, perpendicular lines are placed on some of them - slope indicators (berg strokes), “looking” with their free end in the downward direction;

- icons. Off-scale conventional signs, or, as they are usually called, icons, are very diverse in appearance - from a simple circle or square to intricate drawings;

- linear signs. Used on maps to display phenomena and objects located in nature along certain lines;

- traffic signs. Lines indicate the paths of expeditions, the directions of winds, currents, cargo flows, military operations of troops, etc. These are stripes or arrows of different shapes and colors, showing the direction and axial lines of movement, its nature and intensity;

- localized diagrams. A method of depicting periodic phenomena (the frequency of annual and daily variations in temperature, precipitation, tides, wind direction and strength, wind waves, current speed, etc.) by placing diagrams on the map assigned to certain points;

- map diagrams, cartograms. These methods clearly display various ratios of certain indicators. Here the boundaries of the regions must be delineated, within which the magnitude of a particular phenomenon is indicated. In each individual case, depending on the quantitative indicators, cartographers develop a special scale with the help of which this factor is displayed most clearly.

According to the degree of generalization of indicators thematic maps are divided into analytical, synthetic and complex.

4.1.1. Analytical cards

TO analytical These include maps that give a specific description of one or more natural or socio-economic phenomena, without showing the connections and interactions between them. For them, non-generalized or poorly generalized indicators are used, often obtained on the basis of a single observation (on observation maps). For example, maps of individual meteorological elements characterizing their magnitude at a given moment or period of time (Fig. 4.1): air temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, winds, etc.; or maps of the steepness of slopes, depths, density of relief, etc. Analytical maps provide information on certain aspects or properties of objects and phenomena; they are characterized by abstraction from the whole.

Rice. 4.1. Analytical map of actual weather

The power of analytical mapping is that it allows you to “dissect” an object into its component parts, examine them separately, or even isolate the elements of these parts. Such a “dissection” can be as detailed as desired, it all depends on the depth of the analysis. At the initial stages of the analytical study of an object, maps show the main elements of its structure, material composition, special features and properties. But as knowledge accumulates and methods improve, analytical maps reflect increasingly subtle features and details of the structure. Thus, when studying the relief, more and more “subtle” methods of mathematical modeling are used, obtaining more and more detailed analytical maps, for example, maps of horizontal and vertical curvature of the surface, maps of second derivatives characterizing the rate of change of slopes, maps of height dispersion, etc. The analysis possibilities are almost endless.
It is necessary, however, to keep in mind that the concept of “analytical map” is in a certain sense relative. For example, a map of daily temperatures is undoubtedly an analytical map in relation to the map of average monthly, and even more so average annual temperatures. But a map of average annual temperatures can also be considered analytical if it is placed in a row with maps of pressure, precipitation, evaporation, and prevailing winds - all of them characterize only individual elements of climate. This is the dialectic of any analysis, which is inextricably linked with synthesis.
Close to analytical are the so-called private , or industry , cards. They have a narrow topic and show in detail any particular industry. Most often, when talking about industry maps, they mean socio-economic topics related to individual sectors of industrial or agricultural production. Industry maps are considered to be maps of mechanical engineering, textile, chemical, food and other industries or maps of beet farming, cotton farming, sheep farming, poultry farming, etc.

4.1.2. Synthetic cards

Synthetic maps provide a holistic spatial display of phenomena as a result of interpretation of the most significant indicators, their connection and generalization, taking into account the connections between them. Examples include maps of climatic zoning, agricultural specialization of regions, landscape maps on which the corresponding areas (districts) are identified based on a combination of many indicators.
Synthetic maps are usually created by integrating data reflected in a series of analytical maps. With a small number of synthesized indicators, this can be done manually, but in more complex cases it is necessary to use mathematical modeling methods.
Note that synthetic maps always have quite detailed, sometimes even cumbersome, legends. In the explanations of the integral assessment, they try to reflect many initial parameters.
Methods for creating synthetic maps have especially improved with the introduction of geographic information systems that simultaneously operate with dozens of layers of information. GIS include special procedures for data synthesis. In particular, this gave impetus to the widespread development of synthetic ecological-geographical mapping of the living conditions of the population based on taking into account a complex of natural, economic and social parameters. It is even possible to combine several synthetic indicators on one map.

Rice. 4.2. Synthetic card. Zones of agricultural specialization in the south of Azerbaijan

Sometimes a synthetic image is combined with some analytical indicators on the same map. For example, on economic maps, agricultural zoning is given in a synthetic generalization, and industrial sectors are presented analytically. These are the so-called analytical-synthetic maps.
It must be borne in mind that there are different stages of synthesis. A geomorphological map is synthetic in relation to maps of slope angles and relief dissection, but at the same time it can be considered as analytical in relation to a map of the natural zoning of a territory. Here it stands among such maps as hydrological, soil, geobotanical, etc. What at one level acts as a synthetic image, at the next, higher level becomes an “element” of a more complex system - this is how the dialectic of analysis processes is manifested in mapping. synthesis. It should be added to this that the degree of synthesis always increases with decreasing map scale, with the transition from showing individual objects to depicting collective concepts. In other words, the level of synthesis depends to a certain extent on the degree of generalization of the cartographic image.

4.1.2. Complex cards

Complex maps combine the image of several elements of a similar topic, a set of characteristics (indicators) of one phenomenon. For example, on one map one can give isobars and vectors of prevailing winds, keeping in mind that the winds are directly related to the atmospheric pressure field. On an agricultural map you can simultaneously show the plowed area and wheat yield, on a hydrological map - the intra-annual distribution of flow in a river basin, the water content of rivers and potential energy resources. In Fig. 4.3 shows a comprehensive map on which the image of the annual distribution of river flow and water content of rivers is combined with the characteristics of potential hydropower resources.

Rice. 4.3. Comprehensive map. Water content of rivers, flow distribution and potential energy resources of the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula

Each characteristic is given in its own system of indicators, but showing two, three or more topics on one map allows the reader to consider them as a whole, visually compare them with each other, and establish patterns of placement of one indicator relative to another. This is the main advantage of complex maps.
However, difficulties also arise. The fact is that it is difficult to combine images of several phenomena on one map so that they are clearly readable. It is known, for example, that it is possible to combine two systems of isolines (one is given with layer-by-layer coloring, and the other with bright colored lines), but three systems of isolines are no longer readable. Similarly, you can give two cartograms on the map (one with a color scale, and the other with shading), supplement the map with icons, movement lines, images of areas, etc., but with five or six layers, a complex map becomes overloaded and loses readability.
Well-known examples of complex maps are topographic maps, which jointly present relief, hydrography, vegetation, soils, settlements, socio-economic objects, road networks, communication lines, administrative boundaries - i.e. the entire complex of objects characterizing the area.
Another, no less striking example is meteorological maps, where, against the background of isobars and lines of atmospheric fronts, meteorological elements are shown: air and soil temperatures, air humidity, wind direction and speed, amount and type of precipitation, cloudiness, etc. - together they reflect weather conditions .
Thematic maps that display several natural or socio-economic elements are classified as complex maps. For example, synoptic maps characterizing the current weather in a certain area. Each element on these maps (temperature, pressure, winds, etc.) is characterized by its own system of indicators, but all of them are compared with each other and considered comprehensively, usually identifying the patterns of placement of one indicator relative to another. The content of complex maps can be: some natural phenomena (pressure, winds); several socio-economic phenomena (industry, agriculture, transport); a group of phenomena characterizing the natural environment, population and economy (for example, maps of agro-industrial complexes, displaying the relationship between the location of industry and agriculture with natural resources and raw material bases). On complex maps, analytical and synthetic techniques are often used simultaneously. For example, on economic maps, analytical indicators are used to display industry, and synthetic indicators for agriculture. Topographic maps, which display various elements of the terrain, also belong to the type of complex maps.
Among thematic maps, maps stand out speakers And interrelations , as well as maps functional types . The latter include inventory, evaluative, indicator, forecast And recommendation cards.
Dynamics maps convey movement, the development of a certain phenomenon or process in time or its movement in space (movement of water masses, atmospheric vortices, growth of cities).

Rice. 4.4. Climate map of Antarctica

Relationship Maps reflect the nature and degree of spatial relationships of several phenomena (atmospheric pressure and winds, fertilizer application and crop yields). Basically, these are intersectoral maps that display connections between phenomena and processes of nature, population and economy.
Inventory cards - usually these are analytical maps that display (register) the presence, location and condition of objects and phenomena (natural and labor resources, economic objects: maps of the distribution of minerals, forests, farmland, working population, industrial facilities, agriculture, transport, etc.) .
Scorecards - maps that provide an assessment of certain phenomena (objects) for solving specific problems (for example, maps for assessing the natural conditions of a territory for agricultural production or for road construction, etc.). These are applied maps compiled on the basis of inventory maps, most often reflecting the interaction between man and nature.
Indication cards designed to predict and identify unknown phenomena based on the study of other, well-known ones. The compilation of indicator maps is based on the idea of ​​a close connection between indicators and indicated phenomena. Thus, vegetation indicator maps are used to detect tectonic faults, since special conditions for groundwater circulation arise above fault zones, and this affects the species composition of vegetation. Some plant species serve as indicators of mineral resources (especially ore deposits, salt deposits), certain animal habitats indicate the spread of certain human diseases, therefore, geobotanical indicator maps are used in mineral exploration, and zoogeographic indicator maps are used in identifying potential disease areas. Thus, in essence, indicator cards are close to forecast cards.
Forecast cards reflect currently unknown or inaccessible to direct observation phenomena and processes occurring as in time(for example, population dynamics in the future, changes in the structure of industrial production, etc.), and in space(for example, the location of mineral deposits, the structure of the Earth’s interior, etc.). According to the degree of reliability (probability) of the forecast, maps can be: preliminary forecast(schematic small-scale maps), probable forecast (more detailed than preliminary forecast maps, usually large-scale maps), very likely prognosis(the most detailed, usually large-scale maps) and future calculation cards(even more accurate maps compiled from accurate data).
Recommendation cards usually compiled on the basis of assessment and forecast maps and contain specific proposals (recommendations) that need to be carried out in a given situation (in a certain territory) to achieve some goal (for the rational use of land, protection and improvement of the environment, etc.) .

4.2. CARDS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSE

The purpose of cards is as diverse as the spheres of human activity are diverse, so it is difficult to indicate all types of cards that differ on this basis. The matter is further complicated by the fact that a number of maps are multi-purpose oriented - they simultaneously serve for planning, scientific research, educational and cultural purposes, obtaining reference information and much more. And yet, it is possible to indicate several types of cards in which the features of their purpose are especially clearly demonstrated.
Scientific reference maps are intended to carry out scientific research on them and obtain the most detailed (for a given scale), reliable and scientifically processed information. These are cards for specialists working in the field of geosciences and socio-economic sciences.
Cultural and educational cards are aimed at a wide readership, they provide a simplified, if one may say so, “lightweight” cartographic interpretation for persons who do not have special geographic and cartographic training. The purpose of these maps is to disseminate knowledge, promote ideas (for example, respect for natural and historical monuments), explain plans for economic development and development of territories, etc. Such maps usually have a bright, simple, intelligible design, complemented by diagrams, drawings, and poster elements. Cards are close to this type tourist And touristic -local history , intended for tourists, travelers to their native land and simply for vacationers. Their content focuses on places of interest to tourists (architectural and historical monuments, nature reserves, parks, museums, etc.). The maps are colorfully designed and accompanied by detailed signs and reference information. They can depict extensive resort areas (for example, the Black Sea coast), national parks, cities, individual skiing, hiking, water routes, etc. Adjacent to this group are cards for orienteering , specially adapted for competitions in this sport.
Educational cards - a clearly distinguished type of maps used as visual aids or materials for independent work in schools and universities. They use projections and image methods that take into account the level of preparation of students and the nature of the use of maps in the educational process. Accordingly, maps are created for primary, secondary and high schools. Their workload must correspond to the volume of training programs of a particular educational level. Note that maps for higher education, intended for classrooms, are close in content and detail to scientific reference ones, without losing their demonstrative properties.

4.3. SCHOOL CARTOGRAPHIC WORKS

4.3.1. Features of school cards

Compared to other cards, school cards have a number of features:
. their consistency with the corresponding program and textbooks , liberation from unnecessary details. The younger the students, the lower the load of cards for them. Excessive detail and load of school maps can make it difficult to view the study area and identify objects needed for study. This, however, does not mean that only what is mentioned in the textbook is put on the school map. In this case, the map will not plausibly reflect reality. Therefore, even on maps for junior grades, some additional load is given from objects not mentioned in the textbook
. visibility, ensured not only by a small scale, but also by large generalization, as well as the use of special graphic techniques and, above all, the enlargement of symbols (especially on wall maps), the creation of a multifaceted image, when what students should know first is brought to the fore ;
. increased visibility , allowing students to easily associate data on a symbol map with corresponding objects in the field. Visibility on maps is achieved by various techniques - the use of background and line colors associated with natural ones (blue background of lakes, blue rivers, green forests, etc.), placement in the fields of the map of artistic images of objects and the area as a whole depicted on the map, the use of versatility cartographic image, etc.;
. application fairly limited number of map projections ;
. scale on maps intended for studying the initial course of geography in junior grades, named and linear ones are usually given. For senior grades, a numerical scale is also placed on the maps;
. frame orientation school maps, relative to the lines of the cartographic grid, one is chosen in which the middle meridian passes through the middle of the map. At the same time, the north-south direction in the middle of the map is maintained in the position familiar to students (north is at the top, south is at the bottom).

4.3.2. School geographical atlases

School geographical atlases are the main aids for comprehensive independent work of students in the classroom and at home. The main pedagogical goal in working with school atlases is not to transfer knowledge to students, but to teach them to independently obtain information. As cartographic works, they have the same properties as all atlases. However, they have properties that arise from the specifics of their purpose.
Currently, the number of school atlases published by both government agencies and private companies is growing. Therefore, the choice of one or another atlas as the main, obligatory manual should be based on a thorough analysis of all existing works of this kind. The analysis of school atlases is carried out by the teacher according to the same scheme as for any atlas. A geography teacher who knows well the features of school atlases and knows how to analyze them will be able to more competently organize work with them and teach students to more fully use them as a source of geographical knowledge.
Some school atlases, in addition to maps, include special methodological introductory sections that examine the features of atlas maps and instructions for working with them, reference information about the most important objects of the earth's surface (rivers, lakes, islands, the highest mountain peaks, etc.). In addition, in atlases for high schools, reference information is placed on the pages of the atlas themselves. These are various kinds of diagrams, tables, inset maps. The best editions of school atlases contain space photographs of areas of the earth's surface and a general view of the earth from space.
Among the group of atlases of individual countries, it deserves special attention National Atlas of Ukraine - official state publication. The Atlas was created as a modern information system and has a number of important functions. Wide representative and information capabilities allow it to be used in many spheres of social life:
. in legislative and management activities at the national and regional levels;
. to substantiate various government programs for balanced economic, social, environmental and spiritual development of regions and the state as a whole;
. in environmental management and monitoring of natural and social phenomena and processes;
. in the school and higher education system;
. in the formation of foreign policy and the development of international relations.
It is a source of up-to-date information about Ukraine for interested domestic and foreign readers and the large Ukrainian diaspora.
In terms of the level of theoretical and methodological support and cartographic implementation of spatial data, the Atlas is comparable to the national atlases of other countries in the world.

Rice. 4.5. National Atlas of Ukraine

In 2010, a new modern cartographic work was published - the Teacher's Atlas, which was prepared by the State Research and Production Enterprise "Cartography".

Rice. 4.6. Teacher's atlas published by NPP "Cartography"

In terms of its content and content, this atlas can be called an atlas-encyclopedia. And indeed it is. The four main sections of the atlas contain a wealth of geographical information about planet Earth.
The atlas is made using the latest technologies, illustrated with a large number of photographs and diagrams. It was created on the basis of modern cartographic and literary sources and statistical materials.
The atlas maps are supplemented by text and geographic information.

4.3.3. Special school maps and other cartographic works

These include the following:
A) contour maps - single-color images intended for applying various data (inscriptions, signs, objects, phenomena, processes, etc.) to them. They are produced in the form of blocks with a consistent basis, scale, and layout. Existing maps provide for a gradual complication of work with contour maps from junior to senior grades. Another function of contour maps is the basis for drawing up thematic maps or map diagrams when identifying the relationships between the phenomena and processes under study;
b) induction cards - wall contour maps made on linoleum or leatherette with indelible contours. Used when working with students on desktop contour maps, explaining new material;
V) dumb cards - ordinary wall maps, but without inscriptions; designed to test and consolidate students' knowledge at the blackboard;
G) half-mute cards - characterize objects with the first two or three letters, and the student needs to identify and add the next letters of the names of these objects;
G) stencil cards - made on transparent film for projection from an epidiascope to a screen; make it possible to apply a number of films; used when learning new material;
d) sketch maps - cartographic drawings made “by eye”, without exact adherence to the scale on the board; used when studying new material, when it is necessary to concentrate students’ attention on a specific phenomenon or process;
e) electrified and magnetic cards - ordinary wall maps, which are specially equipped; electrified cards have built-in electrical contacts in certain places where small light bulbs are connected; magnetic cards are made on special metal sheets; the symbols on them are made of foam plastic with an inserted magnet;
and) text cards - maps of textbooks and manuals, one of the types of desktop maps and an integral part of the textbook as an integral work; Together with the text, they provide the study of the necessary program material. According to the text, these cards can play a main role (the text explains them), a supporting role (they explain, “comment” on the text), and are on a parity basis;
With) globes begin to be used in lessons in elementary grades to explain the shape of the Earth, in subsequent grades - to explain the shape and size of the Earth, the cartographic grid, the essence of parallels and meridians, when determining geographic coordinates (geographic latitude and longitude), illumination of the Earth by the Sun, the movement of the Earth around the Sun and around its axis, etc. School globes are made in scales 1:83,000,000, 1:50,000,000, 1:30,000,000; the last one is for demonstration, the first two are intended for independent work of students; according to content they are divided into physical, political, embossed. Distributed induction globes- a degree grid is applied on a black background with light paint. There are globes made of transparent plastic illuminated from the inside.
The school curriculum in geography provides for the use of profiles, sections, block diagrams, relief maps, etc.

4.3.4. Pedagogical goal of working with a map in geography lessons

The map is the most used cartographic work in the school geography curriculum. It is the most universal product. Using the map you can solve various creative problems. The use of maps in school geography pursues three main goals (tasks), which are achieved in the process of studying the map and working with it:
a) to understand a map - this means to master the basic properties of the map, the features of various types of maps, their symbols, and methods of application;
b) reading a map means being able to figure out the geographical reality with its cartographic image, that is, using symbols to discover the relationships between natural phenomena and human activity. The nature of reading can be different and depends on the purpose and capabilities of the map: from ordinary reference (what? where? how much?) to a complete understanding of the relationship and interdependence of objects and phenomena (why? for what reasons? how?);
c) know the map - reproduce cartographic information in memory, represent from memory the relative location, relative sizes, shape and proper names of objects that are studied in a school geography course.
Cartographic information helps to organize geographic knowledge, while this knowledge has a chorological and spatial reference.
The above-mentioned goals are unequal in importance, but interrelated. In school geography, the emphasis should be on map reading, which should be based on understanding and knowledge of the map.
Working with a map or other cartographic works is interesting for schoolchildren because it involves the visual memory function (the visual nerve channel is four times more powerful than the auditory channel). In addition, children always liked traveling and excursions. This should be used to “transmit” knowledge to students. It is impossible to teach students cartographic verbal methods, so appropriate cartographic works should be selected for students, rather than maps in general.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What maps are called analytical?
2. By what indicators can you recognize an analytical map?
3. What are the benefits of analytical mapping?
4. What is the relativity of the concept “Analytical map”?
5. By what indicators can you recognize a complex map?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of integrated mapping?
7. By what indicators can a synthetic map be recognized?
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of synthetic mapping?
9. What mathematical modeling methods are used to compile synthetic maps? What is the essence of these methods?
10. How does the dialectic of analysis-synthesis processes appear in mapping?
11. How do the degree of synthesis relate to the scale of the map?
12. What geographical phenomena do dynamic maps show? Give examples of these cards.
13. What geographical phenomena do maps of relationships convey? Give examples of these cards.
14. What data do inventory cards contain?
15. What data do scorecards contain?
16. What data do indicator cards contain?
17. What data do forecast maps contain?
18. How are forecast maps classified?
19. What data do recommendation cards contain?
20. What are the purposes of scientific reference maps?
21. What are the purposes of cultural and educational maps?
22. What are the purposes of tourist cards?
23. What are the purposes of educational cards?
29. Give examples of modern complex atlases.

How to name cards offered by someone (without preparation)

1. Name all the cards without preparation.

5 . Name a number of cards that were noticed by the audience.

8 . Guess the selected card.

9 . Of the thirty-three cards, name the noticed card.

10 . Of the twenty-seven cards, name the noticed card.

11 . Find the card with your eyes closed.

12. Show four spectators on the map and then find them.

13. Give the spectator the spotted card after the cards have been shuffled.

14 . Find the card that was drawn and put back into the deck.

15 . How to guess a card by weighing.

16. Guessed cards.

18 . Previously seen card.

Good day to all! In this post we will talk about the types of geographical maps. I have previously written a short article about, but now we will talk about this in more detail.

Since ancient times, in order to display and transmit information about the surface of the Earth to other people, people have created maps.

Today cards are a part of our daily life. We encounter them in weather forecasts, in guidebooks, when planning a trip and on the road.

Types of geographical maps.

We are best known general geographical maps. Such maps show the main elements of the area (vegetation, relief, settlements). Thematic maps focus on individual elements, such as temperature.

Maps are constantly updated to reflect constant changes, such as new borders, demolition of old buildings, road construction... In the 1990s. After the collapse of the USSR, cartographers had to revise the political maps of Eastern Europe and the former USSR.

Geographical atlases.

Geographical atlas is a systematic collection of geographical maps. The main feature of a modern atlas is the internal unity of all the maps that are included in it.

This is achieved by using comparable projections, symbols, scales, general principles of design, methods of depiction, etc. It is believed that the ancient Greek scientist (2nd century AD) compiled the first geographical atlas.

Atlases include general geographical maps of the world and individual regions, and individual thematic(climatic, population, economic, etc. maps)

Regional and national boundaries are displayed, as well as the names of administrative and political units, and other major population centers. Each state and each administrative-territorial unit is painted in different colors.

Irregularities on the surface of the Earth on modern physical (relief) maps, most often shown using a hypsometric color scale (shades of blue indicate the seabed, brown - mountains, green - lowlands).

The relief image is given additional plasticity and clarity by shadow shading and shading. In some cases, a photorelief is applied to the hypsometric image to convey shadow plasticity.

The position of individual peaks relative to sea level is shown by elevation marks.

Topographic maps.

Topographic maps also refer to general geographical, since they depict not only elements of hydrography and relief, but also artificial structures, including communications and settlements, superimposed on the natural landscape.

For example, on fairly detailed topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000 (1 cm 500 m), in addition to the socio-economic and natural objects of the area with all their inherent quantitative and qualitative features and location characteristics using contour lines (usually brown lines that connect points with the same height) shows the relief.

Of course, there are maps on a larger scale, including city plans, which show individual buildings, private houses, gardens...

In modern society general geographical maps(in particular, topographic) are increasingly used. For example, such maps are used in orienteering.

This sport originated in Scandinavia, and it requires the ability to recognize map elements on the ground, determine the direction (azimuth) of movement, etc. Navigation maps of the coastal zone are used in sailing.

Thematic maps.

Thematic maps contain information about the structure, location, weather, etc. Such cards are divided into several types.

On isolinear maps Different types of lines are widely used that connect points with the same value of a certain element.

On synoptic and climate maps, areas with the same pressure are connected by isobars, with the same temperatures - by isotherms, and with the same precipitation - by isohyets.

On many thematic maps To express quantitative characteristics, conventional coloring and designation are used.

For example, on population maps, the urban population is shown by small circles of different diameters and the degree of their concentration.

On cartograms, the use of different colors or different saturations of the same color to color individual areas directly corresponds to a quantitative indicator of a certain characteristic (crime level, birth rate, population density).

The attention of users of such maps is focused on statistics - the main element of the cartogram.

Topological maps are very visual. On such maps, migration or trade flows are shown with arrows or lines, the width of which reflects the intensity of the process.

Very often, topological maps are compiled without observing the image scale, this is in order to facilitate the perception of the main topic.

For example, for a passenger in transport route diagrams, the main thing is to quickly find the desired station and determine the route.

Many maps also display the results of scientific research. For example, geological maps show the structure of a certain section of the earth's crust; such maps are used by geographers, geologists, and they are also used when laying railways and roads, and in the construction of buildings.

On geochemical maps concentrations of chemical elements in rocks are shown, soil maps- types . Epidemiological maps highlight the areas of certain diseases, this helps scientists determine the causes of these diseases.

How to use the card.

The capabilities of maps are largely limited by their scale - the degree to which lines and distances on the map are reduced in comparison with their actual sizes on the ground.

The capabilities of the map are limited in many respects by its scale - the ratio of the size of the object shown on the map to its actual size.

To show a river or road to scale on a map, one would have to draw very thin lines, so thin that they could only be seen under a microscope.

On a 1:10,000 scale map, a two-millimeter line would correspond to 20 meters, and on a 1:250,000 scale map it would correspond to 500 meters.

This is why cartographers very often simplify some elements and convey only their characteristic outlines (for example, without trying to accurately depict every bend and width of the river).

Precision and detail.

The limited scope of many details is another drawback of many maps. For example, 1:50,000 topographic maps show wooded areas and buildings, but omit the sewer network and underground passages.

However, many maps contain a large amount of varied information. Geological maps, using symbols and different colors, provide physical characteristics of relief-forming rocks and show their structure.

Geologists, by comparing the outlines of landforms with the boundaries of different geological layers, have the opportunity to determine the nature of their occurrence and the location of their emergence to the surface.

Reading the map.

It is very important to be able to read a map, including understanding what the symbols on the map mean on the ground.

For example, the absence of surface runoff in a rainy area can tell geographers that the map shows a limestone landscape, which means that surface water flows into underground voids.

The emergence of springs on the surface, which are located in one row, indicates the presence of a boundary between waterproof and aquiferous rock, which delays the flow of groundwater.

Innovations in cartography.

The method of space mapping has been widely used recently. The essence of this method is the compilation of thematic and topographic maps directly from space survey data.

This mapping method is highly economical. It is especially effective when updating and compiling maps of territories that are poorly studied, replenishing their content, showing those phenomena that are visible only from high altitudes (global faults, for example), compiling maps for a specific date (synoptic maps), mapping the dynamics of a phenomenon.

The use of geographic information systems (GIS) is the latest advancement in cartography. GIS is a computer technology for analyzing and mapping real-world objects, as well as events occurring on our planet.

The technology combines traditional database operations, such as statistical analysis and query, with the rich visualization benefits of geographic analysis that a map provides.

All these capabilities distinguish GIS from other information systems, and also provide unique opportunities for its use in a wide range of tasks that are associated with the forecast and analysis of phenomena and events in the surrounding world, with the identification and understanding of the main causes and factors, as well as their possible consequences, with planning of strategic decisions and current consequences of the actions taken.

GIS is used in almost all areas of human activity - from analyzing such global problems as reduction of forest land, overpopulation, natural disasters, pollution of the territory, to solving specific problems, such as selecting the optimal location of a new office, finding the best route between points, laying a pipeline along localities, searching for a house by address, a variety of municipal tasks.

Information services.

In cartography, not so long ago they began to use a world coordinate system that uses satellite signals.“GPS” is a global navigation system, also known as “Navstar” (Navigation System with Time and Ranging), designed to transmit navigation signals that can be simultaneously received in all regions of the world.

The first regular orbital constellation of the system deployed from June 1989 to March 1994: 24 spacecraft were launched into orbit. In 1995, GPS was finally put into operation.

Maintenance and operation are carried out by the Ministry of Defense. All over the world the system is used to solve both military navigation problems and civilian ones.

The GPS receiver allows you to determine the speed of movement of an object, the exact time and its (latitude and longitude).

The procedure for determining coordinates on the ground has become accessible and simple thanks to the advent of inexpensive GPS receivers, and this also gave impetus to the development of electronic cartography systems.

Nowadays, this system is used in aero and sea navigation, and in geodesy. The geographic information service allows you to plot a route based on computer processing of geographic data in digital form.

Thus, we looked at the types of geographical maps that are constantly being improved and become more detailed and accurate, and this is very good for studying our Earth and for helping people navigate 😉

Question:
I was given a debit bank card, but the bank employee did not explain anything about what information is reflected on the bank card, what the appearance of the card conveys. May I need information on a bank card, and in what cases?

Answer: First, let’s talk about what a bank card looks like, or rather, what the card’s appearance might be. The bank card has a format defined by the ISO 7810 ID-1 standard: 85.6 mm x 53.98 mm x 0.76 mm, and is mainly made of plastic. The front and back sides of the card carry various functional information. The general background of the front side of a bank card is approved by the bank based on the designs developed by the designers, and the back side always has a plain background. That is, the design and color of the card depends on the preferences of the issuing bank, and also takes into account the requirements of the payment system that services this card.

The background should contribute to the aesthetic perception of the card and the recognition of the bank that issued the card. For certain types of cards, banks offer cardholders to decide on the design themselves, that is, they give the client the right to choose an individual design.

Using stolen personal cards, it is more difficult to purchase goods at retail outlets, especially expensive ones, since if the purchase amount is significant or if there is the slightest doubt, sellers have the right to ask to see a passport.

• World - 2;
• VISA – 4;
• American Express – 3
• MasterCard – 5
• Maestro - 3, 5 or 6
• China UnionPay - 6
• JCB International - 3
• UEK - 7.

Issuing bank logo located at the top of the card in the right or left corners of the card and identifies the card as the property of the specific bank that issued the card. The logo always contains the abbreviated corporate name of the bank. For example:

Back of the card

1. Bank's name– at the bottom of the card the name of the bank to which the card belongs must be repeated.


2. White paper strip located next to the magnetic stripe. It is only available on personalized cards - and is intended for applying a sample signature of the card holder. This is also protection - if you try to forge a sample signature at the time of making payments using a stolen card, problems may arise.

   The paper strip, in addition to the sample signature of the cardholder, is filled with information taking into account the elements of the type of payment system and the card authentication code.

   So, for example, a bar can be filled:

   
   
   • diagonal lines with the word VISA in blue/blue and gold colors and a 19-digit number printed in a special font slanted to the left, which includes 16 digits of the card number and 3 digits of the security code
   
   
   • diagonal lines with the word MasterCard or MC in red, blue/cyan and yellow and a 7-digit number in the center of the panel, printed in a special font slanted to the left, which includes the last four digits of the card number and 3 digits of the security code
   
   


3. Card authentication code(CVV2 and CVC2) - for payment systems, MasterCard or Visa, it consists of three digits, and is located on a white strip of paper, next to the place for the holder’s signature after the last four digits of the bank card number indicated there. The code is used as an additional means of identifying the cardholder during payments, especially on the Internet. It is not found on all categories of cards of these systems.

   Card authentication code using technology MirAccept payment system "MIR" - consists of three digits and is located on the back of the card. Sberbank of Russia, for example, has a code located before the words “Thank you from Sberbank.”



4. Magnetic stripe on the card- This is a magnetic strip soldered into plastic, which is a carrier of information. Data is written to the card once and will not be rewritten in the future. The recording (or encoding) is made on the instructions of the bank and includes data: about the cardholder, his account number, bank and other additional data necessary for the bank.

   The magnetic stripe comes in black, dark brown or any other color.